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ASSESSMENT OF STAGE LIGHTING IN THE ACADEMIC AND PROFESSIONAL/COMMERCIAL FIELD-A STUDY OF UNIVERSITY OF UYO AND TWILIGHT MEDIA LAGOS
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
- Background of the study
Lighting for the stage involves manipulating the four major Controllable Qualities of light; Intensity, Color, Direction and Movement; to influence the four functions of stage lighting which are Mood, Selective Focus, Modeling and Visibility.
Four Controllable Qualities of Light
Intensity:The intensity of a light source can vary from near total darkness to painfully bright.
Color:Nearly any color you can think of can be created through the use of lighting gels or electronic means. Color can be a major player in creating a mood. However, the lighting designer must be careful in choosing colors so that they coordinate with the colors chosen for costumes and set pieces as well.
Direction:This is the area from which the light approaches the stage. This is a major contributor to the function of modeling. Light can come from below, directly above or anywhere in between. They can also originate from in front of the actors, behind them or off to a side. Each combination of directions has its unique effect on the highlights and shadows produced.
Movement:refers to the changing in the lights whether it be a change in intensity, color or direction of origin.
Functions of Stage Lighting
Visibility is the primary function of stage lighting: making sure the audience can see the part(s) of the stage that the director and/or the lighting designer want them to see.
The modeling function includes creating a realistic (or intentionally non-realistic) view of the world of the play. This is done by strategically placing lights above, below, to the side, in front and behind the actors. Through the use of the placement of the lights, you can create different types of highlights and shadows on the actors, props and set pieces.
Selective Focus is the function of “forcing” the audience to look where it is desired for them to look through the use of high/low intensity and changes in intensity.
The function of Mood is both one of the most difficult and at the same time the easiest function to maintain. It is the easiest because it can be done very simply through the use of colors. However, it can also be overdone to the point of becoming cliche instead of allowing the actors and other aspects to contribute to the overall mood of the play.
Consider a highly simplified example that leads to a fairly intricate space of geometric objects. The lighting director of a local theater has to arrange a set of lights over the stage so that they illuminate certain parts of the floor at certain times. Sometimes the size of a spot needs to change during the course of a performance. Sometimes one colored circle of light must be contained in another. How can she keep track of all the circles of light, and how can she design her lighting directions so that her assistants can carry them out?
The lights all have the same form. A single bulb is suspended from a wire hanging from the ceiling, and a conical shade directs the light out in a beam, which meets the floor in a disc of light. The sides of the shade come down at such an angle that the radius of the disc is equal to the height of the bulb above the floor. Thus the lighting director can specify the radius of the disc by specifying the height of the bulb above the floor, a feature that makes it easy for the director to specify the location of any light. She can always indicate the position of the center of the disc by noting the coordinates used by the director of the play to give her instructions, and for a complete specification, she adds a third coordinate giving the radius, or the height. The collection of lights is thus a three-dimensional configuration space.
Left: Cones of light from bulbs suspended above a stage determine circle patterns on the floor. Right: The coordinates for the center and radius for each disc of light indicate whether or not the disc will remain completely within the stage area.
On one level, the use of three coordinates provides a convenient way to record the various lights. For example, the coordinates (6, 8, 3) might indicate a light centered at a stage point 6 feet from the left side and 8 feet from the edge of the stage, having radius 3. On a deeper level, the collections of coordinates define a geometrical space. When mathematicians call a collection a space, that term generally indicates that more structure is present. In the case at hand, it is possible to use the coordinates to determine particular properties of the lights and their relationship to the stage and to one another. For example, the light with coordinates (6, 8, 3) stays on the stage, while the light corresponding to (12, 3, 4) comes off the front of the stage. It is easy to determine a rule that tells when a light stays away from the front rim of the stage, namely that the second coordinate is larger than the third. In this way we see a relationship between the geometry of the configurations and the relationships among their coordinate representations.
The lighting director can also solve more complex problems by referring to the coordinates. For example, when will one spot be contained in another? This happens when the distance between the points in the plane given by the first two coordinates is greater than the difference of the third coordinates. In this space, the three coordinates do not play the same roles, so even though the geometry of the configuration space is three-dimensional, it is not identical with the usual geometry of ordinary three-space.
This example sheds light on the introduction of time as a fourth coordinate. Sooner or later everyone hears a statement like “Time is the fourth dimension,” and that idea represents a limitation of the idea of dimensionality. Already in the last century writers realized that in many situations time can be viewed as a fourth dimension, but by no means does it demand any special role as the fourth dimension. When physicists, especially relativity physicists, specify an event by giving three space coordinates and one time coordinate, they are using a four-dimensional configuration space. This space has its own geometry, but it is not the same as the geometry of the four-dimensional space that extends ordinary plane and solid geometry, where distance is given by the generalized Pythagorean theorem. In relativity, the distance between two events is given by [(x-x’)2 + (y-y’)2 + (z-z’)2 – (t-t’)2]1/2 so the time coordinate, measured in special units related to the speed of light, appears in the expression with a negative sign, not a positive sign as in the generalized Pythagorean theorem.
A simple molecule is modeled by a collection of nonoverlapping spheres joined by rods.
The three-dimensional configuration space of spotlights is analogous to a four-dimensional geometry occurring in molecular modeling. The atoms making up a molecule are modeled by small spheres of varying radii. The description of the arrangement of atoms in a particular molecule consists of a list of such spheres, each with three coordinates to specify its center and one coordinate to give the radius. Thus the configuration space of atoms is four-dimensional. We can describe such a molecule to a graphics computer and ask it to display any particular view of the object. The computer can determine that two atoms do not intersect by checking an algebraic condition in four coordinates, namely (x-x’)2 + (y-y’)2 + (z-z’)2 – (r+r’)2 < 0. The geometry of this configuration space is much closer to that of relativity theory than it is to ordinary Euclidean four-dimensional geometry.
The lighting system that began our discussion can be even more complicated if each of the lights also possesses a rheostat to control the current, and hence the brightness of the spot. Adding the coordinate for brightness causes the configuration space to become four-dimensional. If we want to indicate the color of each spotlight as well, then the dimensionality jumps again. Usually we describe a color using separate numbers for hue, saturation, and value, or using three numbers giving the relative amounts of red, yellow, and blue (for pigments) or red, green, and blue (for lights). In any case the specification of color requires three more coordinates, so the lighting director will have seven coordinates for each spotlight–two for floor position, one for radius, one for brightness, and three for color. Thus it is that a simple example leads to a configuration space of high dimensionality.
The universe of modern physics is much more complicated than Einstein’s description of events based on three dimensions of space and one of time. Some current models keep track of ten dimensions that act like space and one that acts like time to give an 11-dimensional configuration space. Another important model uses a configuration space with 26 dimensions. In each case the choice of the model depends to some degree on the kinds of mathematics that apply in these dimensions, as an aid for keeping track of the complex interrelationships among events in these higher-dimensional spaces.
- Statement of the problem
The work researches into the heart of the long-observed problem of graduates haven fulfilled all rigorous academic requirements still having to go through a whole new rigour of learning from beginning like they did nothing in school. This continued experience by students in this field leaving school after torturing years only to go into the commercial field and start from basics is seemingly frustrating and needs much to desire.
- Significance of the study
To build on previous researches in this work, and enhance the scope of reason and profer better and practical solutions, which is expected to reduce the level of frustration learners face, and to also reduce wasted time which should be rechannelled,and to see areas of curriculum review which could be possibly and practically implemented in tertiary institutions so graduates can go directly to work without passing through another lengthy-years of rigorous training which should have been infused in their academic trining
- Justification of the research
Increasing drop in technically proficient personnel, giving room for a field flooded with half-baked non-intellectuals operators, and in-consequence making the industry trudge behind in competition of advancement and innovation in the global market is such that calls for an urgent check and cursory look. In recent times, Nollywood viewership has moved from 100% domestic market dominance to a much less figure. This gives an urgent call to action
- Scope of the research
A thorough survey was done among students and even members of the academia in University of uyo and Twilight Media Lagos. Oral questions were posed. This was done at random though. Questionnaires were distributed
- Definition of terms
Accent Light: 1) Illumination used to make something stand out. It may be done with intensity and/or color. 2) A luminaire that provides such illumination.
Amp: an abridged version of Ampere.
Amperage (A): The measure of electrical current in amperes.
Ampere (A): A unit of measurement for Electrical Current.
AMX: Abbreviation for Analog Multiplex.
Analog Multiplex (AMX): A system that simultaneously transmits more than one analog signal.
Analog Signal: A continuous communication signal where the amplitude or frequency of the voltage and/or current takes any value within a range of values.
ANSI: Abbreviation for American National Standards Institute.
ANSI Code: A three letter system that has been devised to describe lamps of different manufacture but the same application. The letters have no relationship to lamp description, but the same letters always designate the same type of lamp. Some of the application parameters they define are wattage, base type, envelope size, and light center length.
Arc: The light caused by an electrical discharge between two electrodes in a gas such as xenon, argon, or air. The first usable arc as a practical light source was developed in 1809 by Sir Humphrey Davy.
Automated Light: A luminaire that is robotic, i.e., certain functions such as panning, tilting, focusing, dimming, beam shaping and coloring, etc., are motorized and remotely operated from a control console.
Axial: A term used to describe a luminaire whose lamp is mounted on the same axis as its optical system.
Backlight: 1) Illumination on a subject from behind, causing a separation of the subject from the background, often creating a fringe of light around the subject. 2) A luminaire that provides such illumination.
Ballast: An electrical apparatus that limits the electrical current in a particular circuit, usually a circuit containing an arc source.
Bank: 1) A group of luminaires. 2) A group of dimmers or dimmer modules. 3) A group of sliders or channels on a control console.
Bare Ends: Leads without a connector installed.
Bare Leads: See the definition for Bare Ends.
Barn Doors: An apparatus with adjustable flaps, usually 2, 4 or 8, that attaches to the front of a luminaire. It is used to block or shape the beam.
Barrel: 1) An abridged version of Lens barrel. 2) A male turn-around, generally used for the connection of control cables.
Base: 1) The bottom of a stand used for mounting luminaires. 2) The part of a lamp to which the electrical connections are made, i.e., the part with the contacts. It is often the mechanical support and/or heat sink for the lamp. 3) The flat, bottom support for some luminaires.
Batten: A horizontal pipe on which luminaires, scenery, curtains, and some distribution equipment are hung.
Batten Strip: a connector strip hung from a batten.
Beam: 1) Generally, the conoid, or in some cases, the pyramoid of light emanating from a luminaire. 2) In Photometry, the circular area of the base of a cone-shaped beam where the intensity is at least 50% of the maximum intensity. The maximum intensity is ideally located at the center of the base. It should be noted that some luminaires, such as ellipsoidal spotlights and follow spots, can be adjusted or designed such that the light emanating from them does not include the entire beam, i.e., the edge of the beam is greater than 50% of its center.
Beam Angle: The angle of the vertex of a cone shaped beam where the perimeter of the base is defined by where the intensity is 50% of the maximum intensity.
Beam Pattern: The complete shape of the beam, as defined in the general sense. It includes any realistic or abstract patterns introduced into the beam as well as any apparatus that alters the contour of the beam.
Beam Spread: See the definition for Field Angle.
Blacklight: A luminaire with a beam whose wavelengths are too short to be visible, i.e., 320 to 380 nm. These ultraviolet wavelengths excite fluorescent materials, paints, etc., in theatrical applications.
Blackout: To remove or the removal of all or almost all light on the performing area, usually done rapidly.
Bleed Through: The effect created by adjusting the intensity of the illumination directly on a theatrical scrim inversely with the intensity of the illumination behind it. This causes the scrim to go through a phase of changing transmission.
Boom Base: A heavy, steel or iron base used in the theater industry to support a boom.
Borderlight: A striplight often used at some border on a stage or over a stage. This could be an area between two curtains or at the edge of the stage floor, cyclorama, runway, etc.
Breakout: A special power cord that has one male or female multiconnector electrically connected to a plurality of female or male connectors, respectively, via separate cables or sets of sleeved wires. In most cases, each contact of the multiconnector is electrically connected to only one of all of the collective contacts on the other connectors.
Bubble Machine: A machine that emits a continuous stream of soap-based bubbles.
Bump: To change the intensity of a luminaire or group of luminaires instantaneously, usually for a short duration of time, often to the beat of music as if to create a pulsing effect.
Burnout: 1) The melting of a lamp filament. 2) A term used to describe certain roadies.
Bus: A conductor comprising a thick metal strip, usually copper, brass, or aluminum, to which other devices, such as fuses and circuit breakers, as well as a means to make electrical connections, may be attached. Buses are often used in power distribution equipment that handles large amounts of electrical current, e.g., panelboards and switchboards.
Cable: 1) A rope of wire used to transmit electricity or data. 2) To run, hook up, and/or interconnect electrical cables and the items to which the cables are connected. 3) A strong, flexible, wire rope made of steel, used to support pipes, battens, truss, etc., from an overhead structure.
Cable Bundle: A group of electric cables attached at various points by tape, rope, etc.
Cable Cradle: A metal sling used to support heavy stage cable as it hangs from a batten, while simultaneously preventing the cable from entering horizontal sight lines from the house to the stage. It can also take strain away from the point where the cable exits a piece of distribution equipment.
Cable Drop: An overhead electric cable or group of electric cables that extends downward for the connection of luminaires or other electrical apparatuses. The cable(s) may be connected to some type of overhead support, or directly to a piece of distribution equipment.
Cable Hook: A hook that attaches to a stand used to hold excess coils of electric cable, often found on follow spot stands.
Cable Mount: A term used to describe a connector designed to be electrically attached to the end of a cable.
Cam-lok: A commonly used type of insulated, locking, single conductor cable connector manufactured by Crouse-Hinds Inc. The name Cam-lok is trademarked.
Candle (cd): The unit of Luminous Intensity of a light source.
Candlepower (cp): A term often used in place of Luminous Intensity.
Cap: 1) The removable or hinged, rear cover of some luminaires that contains the lamp socket, lamp, and power cord. 2) See definition #2 for Base.
Carbon Arc: An arc source in which the arc is formed in air between a pair of carbon electrodes.
Card: 1) In general, a circuit board. 2) See Dimmer Card or Control Card.
Catwalk: A raised, overhead platform used in film industry studios, used for mounting and accessing luminaires and other types of production equipment. Located around the perimeter of the studio floor, they are often painted green and are always provided with handrails.
C-Clamp: 1) See definition for Pipe clamp. 2) In the film and video industries, a “C” shaped clamp that attaches onto a pipe and locks with the aid of a bolt, that when tightened, presses like a vice onto the pipe. It also has a stud/studs for the attachment of luminaire, grip equipment, etc.
Century Stand: A grip stand manufactured by Matthews Studio Equipment Corp. The name Century Stand is trademarked.
Channel (ch): An individual control output on a control console, accessed and regulated by a slider, switch, or button, or in, some cases, accessed by a discretely assigned address and regulated by a data input apparatus.
Chief Electrician: Master Electrician or Gaffer.
Chief Lighting Technician: Master Electrician or Gaffer.
Circuit: A complete electrical path leading from an electrical supply through conductors and perhaps dimmers, distribution equipment, electrical devices, electronic items, etc. to the load and returning to the source. The load is quite often a lamp.
Circuit board: A plastic or fibrous card that contains electronic components and the wiring and/or tracers that interconnect them.
Circuit Breaker: An electrical device designed to open and close a circuit by nonautomatic means and to open the circuit automatically on a predetermined overcurrent without damage to itself.
Circuit Breaker Panel: A panelboard that houses circuit breakers.
Cold Mirror: A mirror that transmits heat, i.e., infrared radiation, but reflects light.
Cold Start: A term used to describe the ignition of a cold arc lamp, i.e., a lamp that has not been electrified for a relatively long period of time.
Color: (see color medium) To place color media in front of a luminaire to alter the color of the beam.
Color Balance: An arrangement of hue, chroma, and value within a design that produces a sense of equilibrium, i.e., no colored area commands attention to the detriment of the entire arrangement.
Color Changer: (also color scroller, color wheel) An apparatus that attaches to a luminaire and allows one to manually introduce one or more color frames into the beam. Color changers are most often found on follow spots.
Color Correction: Adjusting the color temperatures of various luminaires so that they are all the same, or to make them match existing light sources, e.g., sunlight or fluorescent light. This is usually accomplished by utilizing color media, but adjusting the input voltage levels is a method sometimes used for some luminaires.
Color Filter: see color medium.
Color Frame: An apparatus used to hold color media or other types of filters. It can be of various shapes and sizes, and may comprise one or more pieces.
Colorine: lamp dip (yum yum! <crunnnnnch>)
Color Medium: Any colored transparent material that can be placed in front of a beam to color the light. They can be of the absorption or reflection type.
Color Rendering Index (CRI): A single number approximate evaluation of the effect of a light source on the visual appearance of a colored surface. The number falls on a scale from below 0 to 100, with daylight at 100. Objects and people viewed under lamps with a high CRI generally appear more true to life.
Color Scroller: An electronic, motorized apparatus that mounts on the front of a luminaire, and allows for the automatic placement of one of a number of gels to be placed in front of the beam.
Color Temperature: The temperature, in degrees Kelvin, of a black-body that generates light with the closest visual color match to the source being specified, i.e., a measure of the color appearance of light, not the actual temperature of the light.
Color Wheel: An apparatus holding several different gels that can be rotated by hand or motor such that any one gel can be placed in front of a luminaire with relative ease.
Complementary Colors: Two colors of light that combine to make white light in the additive color mixing system. For red, green, and blue, the complementary colors are cyan, magenta, and yellow, respectively.
Complementary Tints: Two colors in the additive color mixing system that combine to make nearly white light.
Computer Board: memory board
Concave: A term used to describe a lens side that is inwardly and usually spherically curved.
Conduct: To carry electrical current.
Conductor: Generally, anything that will carry electrical current, but usually refers to an insulated wire.
Cone: see Snoot.
Cone Light: A soft light luminaire that uses a single ended lamp and a cone shaped reflector.
Connector: 1) Specifically, the name for a family of electrical wiring devices, such as plugs and receptacles, comprising one or more contacts, a means for electrically attaching a conductor to each contact, a means for electrically insulating each contact from the other, and an overall insulating material around the complete assembly such that only the contacts are exposed when the connector is properly installed to the item containing the conductors. 2) Generally, any item used to make an electrical connection between two or more separate conductors.
Connector Box: see Plug-In Box
Connector Strip: A piece of power distribution equipment comprising an elongated metal housing, and a plurality of female flush mount connectors or female pigtail connectors for the purpose of supplying electricity to luminaires. It usually hangs from a batten and has many circuits, the line side is usually hard-wired, and it gets its electrical supply from dimmers.
Console: see Control Console.
Control Board: see Control Console.
Control Cable: A cable used to transmit digital or analog signals from a control console to the apparatus to be controlled.
Control Card: 1) Specifically, a circuit board that receives the control signal from the control console and, in turn, individually controls the independent outputs of a bank of dimmer modules. 2) Generally, any circuit board that performs many of the control functions of an electronic apparatus, e.g., a ballast or automated light.
Control Console: An electronic apparatus, run by an operator, that converts the settings of various items, such as sliders, switches, buttons, or some form of data input, into a digital or analog signal that is thereby transmitted to a control card, dimmer bank, or some other electronic apparatus. Some control consoles are also equipped with monitors.
Convex: A term used to describe a lens side that is outwardly and usually spherically curved.
Cool Color: Generally, a color that is in the green-blue-violet range.
Cool Light: Light having a color temperature of approximately 3600°K to 4900°K, i.e., bright-white to blue-white.
Cord Wrap: 1) A loop made of rope attached to a yoke for the purpose of supporting excess coils of electric cable. 2) A round bracket provided on the rear of some luminaires for the purpose of retaining coils of electric cable when the luminaire is to be stored or transported.
Crew: see Lighting Crew
CRI: Color Rendering Index
Cross Bar: 1) In the theater industry, a bar mounted horizontally on top of a stand. It contains two or more sliding tees for mounting luminaires, and a fixed tee for mounting the bar to the stand. 2) In the film and video industries, a bar mounted horizontally between two stands for the purpose of hanging luminaires or grip equipment.
Cross Connecting Panel: see Patch Panel.
Cross Fade: A relatively slow change from one control console setting to another.
Cross Fader: A slider on a control console that enables a cross fade.
Cross Light: A luminaire used for crosslighting.
Crosslighting: Illumination from two sources on opposite sides of the subject.
C-Stand: see Century Stand
Cue (Q): 1) An event in a production that is the signal for a specific action. 2) The signal given in order to cause such an action. 3) The response to such a signal, which may include a change in intensity settings for a luminaire(s), or a change in action by an apparatus(es).
Cue Light: A light used to signal a cue. Red usually means stand by and green usually means execute the cue.
Cut: 1) To remove illumination from a scene or subject. 2) To block a portion of a light beam.
Cutoff: A general term for anything used to block a portion of a light beam, e.g., flags, cutters, shutters, barn doors, etc.
Cut Sheet: Also known as data sheet; a paper, pamphlet or leaflet that has detailed information about a lamp, luminaire, piece of equipment, etc., usually supplied by the manufacturer.
Cyc: see Cyclorama
Cyc Light: See Cyclorama Light
Cyclorama (Cyc): A vertical surface which is used to form the background for a theatrical type setting, usually made of heavy cloth drawn tight to achieve a smooth, flat surface. It usually represents the sky or suggests limitless space. Traditionally, cycloramas were dome shaped or horizontally curved, but may now also be flat or vertically curved as well.
Cyclorama Light (Cyc Light): A luminaire mounted at the top and/or bottom of a cyclorama in order to light it in a smooth, uniform manner.
D/A Converter: Digital-to-Analog Converter
Data Sheet: see Cut Sheet.
Daylight: Light that has a color temperature of approximately 5500-5600°K, which has been approximated to be the color temperature of ordinary sunlight during the day under normal atmospheric conditions.
Daylight Booster: see Punch Light.
Daylight Filter: A filter used to balance light from a source such that the spectral distribution will approximate daylight, i.e. 5500-5600°K.
DC: Abbreviation for Direct Current.
DC Volts (VDC): A unit of measurement for Voltage Potential, specifically for direct current voltages.
Dead: Anything that is supposed to be carrying, or has the potential to carry electrical current, but isn’t.
Dichroic: A type of metallic coating applied to glass and some other materials that allows certain wavelengths of light, or other electromagnetic radiation, to pass while reflecting all others.
Diffuse: 1) To scatter light using diffusion material. 2) A term used to describe a somewhat dull and/or stippled surface that is moderately reflective.
Diffuser: 1) Generally, something made of diffusion material. 2) In the film and video industries, a fabric panel, used for diffusing, with the light source being a luminaire or sunlight. They are available in a variety of sizes and shapes, and materials of varying textures.
Diffusion Frame: An apparatus used to hold diffusion material. It can be of various shapes and sizes, and may comprise one or more pieces.
Diffusion Material: Any reflecting or transmitting media for which the reflected or transmitted light is distributed uniformly, i.e., scattered over a wide range.
Diffusion Media: see Diffusion Material.
Digital Multiplex (DMX): A system that simultaneously transmits more than one digital signal.
Digital-To-Analog Converter (D/A Converter): An apparatus that converts digital signals to analog signals.
Dim: 1) To change the intensity of a luminaire. 2) The state of a luminaire at very low intensity.
Dimmer: An apparatus used to control the intensity of a luminaire.
Dimmer Card: A circuit board that contains some or all of the electronic components needed to electronically dim a luminaire.
Dimmer Module: 1) A discrete apparatus that contains a dimmer card, its enclosure or mounting apparatus, and perhaps other related items such pilot lights or handles.
Dimmer Pack: A portable housing that contains a group of electronic dimmers, usually not less than 4 or more than 24. Some dimmer packs are designed such that they can be permanently installed.
Dimmer Panel: An apparatus, usually 19″ long, that contains a group of electronic dimmers that get installed into a dimmer rack.
Dimmer-Per-Circuit: A situation or design where each electronic dimmer used in a theater or studio affects only one circuit.
Dimmer Rack: An apparatus designed to contain a large group of electronic dimmers. Permanently installed dimmer racks comprise a metal frame and housing in their construction, and are hard wired. Portable dimmer racks are provided with connectors for a tie-in, and are usually provided with wheels, handles, and a metal frame in a metal-lined wooden housing.
Direct Current (DC): An electrical current that maintains constant direction.
Direct Current Voltage: A voltage that maintains constant polarity.
Direct Lighting: Illumination on a subject or area that goes directly from the front of the luminaire in a straight line to the subject or area.
Disappearing Footlight: A footlight mounted into a stage floor, that when closed, has its lid completely flush with the floor. The lid is usually made from the same material as the stage floor.
Distribution: see Light Distribution.
Distribution Equipment: Any electrical apparatus that routes electrical current to another apparatus, usually luminaires.
DMX: Abbreviation for Digital Multiplex.
DMX 512: A somewhat unique digital multiplex signal with specific characteristics that is commonly used in the stage and studio lighting industries. Control consoles designed to generate this signal were originally designed to control a maximum of 512 apparatuses, usually dimmers, but now can control many more.
Donut: A flat metal apparatus with a circular hole in the center used to reduce halation and sharpen the image when using patterns.
Door: 1) A single flap on a Barndoor. 2) A cover to an access opening in the housing of a luminaire or other apparatus.
Double Ended Lamp: A somewhat elongated lamp that has a base and contact on each end.
Double Header: A tee bar with two individual, or sets of, studs or receivers.
Double Pipe Clamp: Two pipe clamps connected together via a short stud with their serrated jaws on opposite ends. It is used to connect two pipes together.
Double Pipe Clamp Extension: Two pipe clamps connected together via a narrow pipe, usually 24″ or more, with their serrated jaws on opposite ends. It is used to connect two pipes together.
Down Light: 1) Downward illumination, almost perpendicular with the floor. 2) A luminaire that provides such illumination.
Downstage: The stage area nearest the audience, also containing the apron.
Drafting Template: A translucent mask with traceable patterned cutouts of luminaires and other items used to draw a light plot.
Dress: To arrange electric cables in a neat and orderly fashion.
Drop Box: see Plug-In Box.
Drop-In Iris: An iris mounted to a plate that can be installed, i.e., dropped into or removed from a luminaire.
Duvetyn (Duvatyne, Duvetine, Duvetyne, Duvyteen): An opaque material used for butterflies, cutters, flags, gobos, and overheads in the film and video industries.
Edison Connector: The standard household male, parallel blade connector that may or may not have a ground pin.
Edison Lampholder: The standard household screw-type lamp socket that accepts medium screw type lamp base.
Effects Projector: A special, lensed luminaire designed to project images by placing one or more glass, film, or plastic slides or metal patterns into its beam. The first crude effects projector was developed by Steele MacKay in the late 1880’s.
Egg Crate: A square or rectangular, partitioned apparatus that, when installed on large open face luminaires, reduces glare.
Electric: 1) An abridged version of Electrics Pipe. 2) A term used by professional film and video industry people to refer to those operating or utilizing luminaires and related equipment, such as cable, distribution equipment, dimmers, etc.
Electrical Distribution: see Power Distribution.
Electrical Frequency: The cycles per second of alternating current, in Hertz. In North America, and parts of South America and South East Asia, the frequency is 60 Hz. The rest of the world operates at a frequency of 50 Hz.
Electrical Noise: A general term for an unwanted electronic disturbance in conductors or electrical or electronic equipment. This equipment can also be the cause of electrical noise.
Electrical Panel: see Panelboard.
Electrical Supply: Anything that has the potential to provide voltage and electrical current, i.e., electrical power.
Electrician: 1) Generally, one versed in the field of electricity and its application. 2) A term used by professional stage lighting people to refer to those operating or utilizing luminaires and related equipment, such as stage cable, dimmers, etc.
Electrics: A catch-all term used to describe any type of power distribution equipment hung from or attached to an electrics pipe.
Electrics Pipe: A horizontal pipe on which luminaires and some distribution equipment are hung. It should not be used to hang scenery and/or curtains.
Ellipsoidal: An abridged version of Ellipsoidal Spotlight.
Ellipsoidal Reflector: A reflector designed to converge light rays to a single point, except that point which is occupied by the point source, eventually resulting in a beam that varies in width, depending on the distance between the two points. It has the shape of the end section of an ellipsoidal.
Ellipsoidal Spotlight: A spotlight that embodies an ellipsoidal reflector and framing shutters, and sometimes an iris and pattern slot.
Ellipsoidal Reflector Spotlight (ERS): See Ellipsoidal Spotlight.
End Prong Base: A lamp base, 1/2″ deep, with two flat, parallel contacts protruding from the bottom.
Envelope: The outer glass part of a lamp.
ERS: Abbreviation for Ellipsoidal Reflector Spotlight.
Even Field: A field that has a relatively uniform decrease in intensity as viewed from the center to the edge of the field, i.e., a field that does not have a noticeable hot spot.
Extended End Prong Base: A lamp base, approximately 1-1/4″ deep, with two flat, parallel contacts protruding from the bottom.
Extension: A catch-all term used to describe any item that stretches the reach of, or increase the length of something, e.g., side arms, extension arms, stage cables, etc.
Extension Hanger: A telescoping grip hanger.
Eye: The Fresnel lens of a Fresnel spotlight.
Fade: To gradually increase or decrease the intensity of light.
Fade In: The gradual increase in intensity of light.
Fade Out: The gradual decrease in intensity of light.
Fader: An item found on most control consoles, such as a slider, used to fade.
Fade-To-Black: To gradually decrease the intensity of all lighting to a blackout.
Far Cyc: A cyclorama light placed at a distance from the cyclorama, generally 8′ or more.
Feed: See Electrical Supply.
Feeder Cables: A set of electric cables, usually individually insulated conductors with a high ampacity, used to remotely connect portable dimmer racks, power distribution racks, and the like, to the electrical supply. They are usually of the wire types W or SC, and are often provided with Cam-lok connectors.
Feeders: See Leads, short for Feeder Cables.
Female: A term applied to a connector that contains the holes and/or slots for receiving the pins, prongs, blades and/or tabs of a male connector. The female connector should always be attached to the line side of a circuit.
Field: In Photometry, the circular area of the base of a cone shaped beam where the intensity is at least 10% of the maximum intensity. The maximum intensity is ideally located at the center of the base. It should be noted that some luminaires, such as ellipsoidal spotlights and follow spots, can be adjusted or designed such that the light emanating from them does not include the entire field, i.e., the edge of the beam is greater than 10% of its center.
Field Angle: The angle of the vertex of a cone shaped beam where the perimeter of the base is defined by where the intensity is 10% of the maximum intensity.
Field Diameter: The diameter of the base of a cone shaped beam where the perimeter of the base is defined by where the intensity is 10% of the maximum intensity.
Filament: The wire inside an incandescent lamp envelope that glows and emits light when heated, i.e., when electricity passes through it.
Fill: To create the illumination needed to reduce shadows in an area or on a subject.
Fill Light: 1) Supplementary illumination used to reduce shadows, preventing them from appearing black. 2) A luminaire that provides such illumination.
Filter: A term that refers to color media, diffusion material, or neutral density filters.
Filter Frame: see Color Frame.
Fire Up: To switch on a luminaire or some other electrical apparatus.
Firing Card: see #1 of Control Card.
First Border: 1) The borderlight and/or its position on the first electric. 2) The first teaser curtain upstage of the proscenium arch.
First Electric: The electrics pipe and/or its position, which is located immediately upstage of the proscenium arch.
Fixed Focus: A term used to describe an optical system whereby the lenses in a luminaire remain at a fixed distance from one another, although they may move as a group within the system.
Fixed Lens System: An optical system where the lens or lenses in a luminaire remain stationary, i.e., they lack the ability to move.
Fixture: A term that is often used interchangeably with Luminaire.
Fixture Extension Clamp: A pipe clamp connected by its base to a narrow pipe, usually 24″ or more, with a bolt and washer on the other end for the purpose of extending the mounting position of a luminaire.
Flex Scrim: A small fabric scrim that is not intended for use on an open end frame, i.e., they are intended to dim the full beam.
Flicker: The strobing of some luminaires that cannot be visually detected because of the frequency of its output voltage, but can adversely affect the way motion picture film records light.
Flicker-Free: A term used to describe electronic ballasts that electronically alter the electrical frequency that causes flicker.
Flies: The space above a stage where scenery, luminaires, etc. are hoisted above horizontal sight lines.
Flood: 1) The position of a movable lamp, lens, or pair of lenses on a spotlight that produces the widest field angle. 2) To direct a large amount of light on a relatively large area.
Flood Light: A luminaire consisting of a reflector, lamp, and sometimes a single lens, used to direct a large amount of light on a relatively large area.
Floor Box: See Floor Pocket.
Floor Bracket: See Floor Trunnion.
Floor Pocket: A stage pocket whose cover is flush mounted with the floor to which it is mounted.
Floor Trunnion (Floor Trunion): A metal bracket with a base used to support a striplight. Always used in pairs, a trunnion attaches to each end and can sit on a floor or can be attached to pipe clamp for hanging. They can also be provided with casters.
Fluorescence: The property of certain materials to absorb radiation of certain wavelengths, usually ultraviolet, and re-emit the radiation as light.
Fluorescent Lamp: A lamp that uses fluorescence as its light source.
Flush Mount: A term used to describe anything whose upper surface, when installed, is flush with the surface to which it was installed. This term is used to describe floor and wall pockets, disappearing footlights, ceiling ports, and certain types of connectors.
Fly: To lift scenery, truss, luminaires, etc., into the air by support cables, chain, or ropes, with the aid of motors, pulleys, winches, and the like.
Flyrail: 1) In modern theaters, it is a sturdy, steel structure with an assortment of pulleys and counterweights, and cam-like clamps or clutch mechanisms which secure the ropes that support the battens and electrics pipes. These apparatuses are often motorized. 2) In older theaters, the flyrail is a pinrail.
Fly Tower: The support structure mounted to the stage wall that contains the ropes or cables and pulleys that go between the flies and the flyrail or pinrail.
Foamcore: A polystyrene, Styrofoam material used as a substrate for some reflector boards, effective because of its light weight and ease of mounting via reflector forks.
Focal Length: The distance between a particular point of a lens or reflector, and the focal point.
Focal Plane: The plane that is perpendicular to the axis of an optical system and also contains the focal point.
Focal Point: The small region where a lens or reflector concentrates the light from a light source.
Focus: 1) To aim and adjust a luminaire to give the beam its desired size (spot or flood), edge (soft or hard), field (even or peak), and/or shape (round, patterned, or cut). 2) To aim and adjust a lens, pair of lenses, light source, reflector, or any combination of these so that the light is concentrated at the focal point.
Focusing Instrument: A luminaire whose beam can be adjusted from spot focus to flood focus.
Focus Lens: A movable lens in a multi-lens optical system that adjusts the focus of a luminaire.
Focus Range: The ratio of spot focus to flood focus.
Follow Spot: A narrow-beam focusing instrument that is manually operated, and usually comprises a powerful light source, an iris, shutters, a color changer, and perhaps other features. It is usually operated from an adjustable stand and is used to follow performer(s) on a stage with its beam, surrounding the performer(s) in a large pool of light.
Foot: The very front of the stage.
Footcandle (fc): A non-metric unit of measurement for Illumination, i.e., 1 lumen per square foot.
Footlight: A luminaire, often a striplight, that is used from the floor of a stage, runway, or other performing area. This luminaire received its name because it was originally used to illuminate the feet of dancing performers on stage.
Framing Projector: A spotlight that has framing shutters.
Framing Shutters: Thin, movable, heat-resistant metal plates that are introduced into a beam such that a portion(s) of the beam is blocked off, i.e., framed, affecting the beam pattern, usually forming a sharp edge in the beam. They are used in various types of luminaires, but extensively in ellipsoidal spotlights, usually 4 (top, bottom, right, and left), and follow spots, usually 2 (top and bottom), always situated internally, and usually at the aperture. Framing shutters generally can be independently adjusted, but those used in follow spots usually move simultaneously with a single control mechanism.
Frequency: 1) The speed at which something pulses or cycles. 2) An abridged version of Electrical Frequency.
Fresnel: short for Fresnel Spotlight.
Fresnel Spotlight: A spotlight employing a single fresnel lens that produces a soft edged beam, and usually provided with a spherical reflector and a means to adjust the focus from spot to flood.
Front Light: 1) Illumination from the general direction of the viewer(s). 2) A luminaire that provides such illumination.
Front-of-House (FOH): The complete area of the theater in front of the stage, i.e., the audience area.
Frost: 1) A term used to describe a lamp whose envelope has been stippled to the point of being translucent for the purpose of diffusing the light. 2) A type of colorless diffusion material made of glass fibers or high-temperature plastic.
F/Stop: A rating often applied to scrims used in the film and video industries on the ability to dim light. This rating is directly related to a camera’s ability to allow for the admittance of light.
Full Scrim: A metal scrim whose screen occupies the complete frame.
Full Stage Plug: A wide, male slip connector designed to carry a relatively large amount of current.
Funnel: see Snoot.
Fused Quartz: A relatively pure, high-temperature glass used to manufacture lamp envelopes. It has a melting point of approximately 1650°C.
Gaffer: A term used by professional film and video industry lighting people to refer to someone overseeing those operating or utilizing luminaires and related equipment, such as electric cables, dimmers, etc.
Gaffer Grip: A large, spring-loaded clamp with serrated or rubber cushioned jaws. It usually has a stud or studs for the attachment of luminaires and grip equipment.
Gas Light: A luminaire that uses burning gas as its light source.
Gel: 1) An abridged but commonly used version of Gelatin. 2) To place gelatine in front of a luminaire to alter the color of the beam.
Gelatine (Gelatin): A type of color media originally made from gelatine, an organic substance made from animal tissues, but now refers to color media made from very thin high-temperature plastic as well.
Gel Frame: See Color Frame.
Gel Scroller: See the definition for Color Scroller.
Gel String: A series of different color gels connected together in a row for use in a color scroller.
Generator: An electrical supply, usually portable, that comprises a diesel or gasoline powered machine and electromagnets for the purpose of generating electricity.
Ghosting: A term used to describe a filament, lamp or luminaire that is barely glowing.
Glitch: 1) An unintended surge or brief interruption in an electrical current or signal. This can sometimes be detrimental to the integrity of the signal or to electronic equipment. 2) Any error in the execution of a cue from a control console.
Gobo: 1) See definition for Pattern. 2) In the film and video industries, a general term for any opaque item placed into the beam of a luminaire that blocks a portion of the beam or the whole beam.
Go Button: A button on a control console that executes a cue.
Gooseneck: A small worklight, supplied with some control consoles and other equipment, that has a long, narrow, adjustable support, similar in appearance and mobility to the neck of a goose. They are usually removable and dimmable.
Graduated Scrim: In the film and video industries, a round, framed metal screen whose density gradually decreases from one side of the frame to the other.
Grand Master: A slider on a control console that controls all other sliders on the console, including masters and sub masters.
Grid: 1) The wood or metal framework located in the flies that supports the pulleys containing the steel wires or rope holding up scenery, battens, etc. 2) The metal structure of pipes in a studio ceiling for the purpose of hanging luminaires, power distribution equipment, or grip equipment. 3) A ballast for carbon arc spotlight.
Gridiron: A grid made of iron and/or steel.
Gridiron Junction Box: A piece of distribution equipment that houses electrical connections. Although quite often located on a gridiron, it can be located anywhere in the stage area or flies where electrical connections need to be made and protected.
Grip: 1) A term used by professional film and video industry lighting people to refer to someone utilizing grip equipment and other related items. 2) An abridged version of Gaffer Grip.
Grip Equipment: A catch-all name for portable items that a member of a film or video industry lighting crew may use, such as luminaires, stands, clamps, flags, cutters, scrims, nets, dots, fingers, etc.
Ground: A conducting connection between an electrical circuit or electrical equipment and earth, or to some conducting item that serves in place of the earth. In most alternating current circuits, ground has a voltage potential of zero.
Ground Cyc: A cyclorama light used from the floor.
Grounded: To have a conducting connection to ground.
Ground Pin: The pin, prong, blade, or tab on some male connectors for the purpose of making a connection ground.
Ground Row: A piece of scenery placed upstage to suggest items near the horizon, often used to hide ground cycs from view of the audience.
Ground Row Cyc: A cyclorama light placed between the ground row and the cyclorama.
Ground Support: The truss, lifts, towers, etc. that are set up at ground, stage, or platform level and used to support other truss or equipment above.
Half Scrim: A metal scrim whose screen occupies one half of its frame such that the straight edge of the screen is located at the diameter of the frame.
Halogen: The name for a family of gases used in lamps to maintain proper color temperature and to keep the inside wall of the envelope clean.
Hanging Arm: A metal bracket with a pipe clamp on one end used to hang short (generally less than 10′) striplights from a batten. Always used in pairs, a hanging arm attaches to each end of the striplight.
Hard Light: 1) Illumination that has a hard edge and produces sharply defined shadows. Often this light is very intense. 2) A luminaire that provides such illumination.
Head: 1) A general term for a fresnel spotlight. 2) The part of a follow spot that contains the light source, i.e., not the stand, ballast, or interconnect cable. 3) The part of a metal halide luminaire that contains the lamp, i.e., not the ballast or interconnect cable. 4) The part of an ellipsoidal spotlight that contains the reflector, i.e, not the lens barrel or the cap.
Heat Filter: A filter which transmits visible light and either absorbs or reflects infrared in order to reduce the amount of heat in a beam.
Heat Shield: A thin, heat-resistant metal plate(s) that surrounds a lamp base in order to reduce the amount of heat reaching the lamp socket in order to reduce pinch temperatures.
Heat Sink: A metal form whose sole purpose is to absorb heat on one surface and radiate that heat from other surfaces.
HMI: Abbreviation for Hydrargyrum (Greek for Mercury) Medium-Arc Iodides. This is a commonly used type of metal halide lamp manufactured by Osram-Sylvania Corp. The term Osram HMI is trademarked.
Horizontal Sight Lines: Imaginary lines drawn from the seats furthest from the center line of the audience area, to any obstructions on the sides of the stage, to determine what portions of the performing area will be visible to all of the audience.
Hot Patch: To make a connection on a patch panel while the circuit is live, thereby creating a potentially dangerous arc.
Hot Spot: The spot of light with the highest intensity, ideally located at or near the center of a beam that has been focused for a peak field.
House Electrician: The electrician employed by a facility who is in control of house lighting and any electrical or electronic equipment owned or responsible for by the facility.
House Lights: General lighting provided for the audience area.
Hue: The red, orange, yellow, green, blue, violet, magenta aspect of color, without regard to other aspects such as saturation and luminance, i.e., the property of light that distinguished it from gray of the same luminance.
I
Ignite: To cause an arc to form across the electrodes of a light source, either manually, as with carbon arc sources, or by using an igniter, as with arc lamps.
Illumination (E): 1) Generally, a term for light or lighting. 2) In photometry, the amount of light, i.e., luminous flux per unit area incident on a surface, in Footcandles or Lux.
Image: 1) The actual design of a pattern. 2) The reproduction of an object formed by an optical system.
Incandescence: The emission of light from heated objects.
Incandescent: A term used to describe a lamp, or a luminaire that utilizes such a lamp, that employs the incandescence of a filament as its light source. Such a lamp was first developed by Thomas Edison (United States) and Joseph Swan (Great Britain), independently, in 1879.
Indirect Lighting: Illumination that falls on an area or subject by reflection, e.g., bounce lighting.
Inky: A small fresnel spotlight with a 1.5″ to 3″ lens diameter, usually 100-250 watts.
Inlet: a recessed male connector.
Instrument: In the theater industry, another term for Luminaire.
Integrated Circuit (IC): An electronic component that includes circuits, rectifiers, and perhaps transistors and other electronic components, processed and contained entirely within a single, compact package with terminals for making electrical connections.
Intelligent Light: see the definition for Automated Light.
Intensity: An abridged version of Luminous Intensity.
Interconnect Cable: An electric cable and connector assembly that electrically connects a ballast to a luminaire that uses an arc as its light source.
Interconnecting Panel: See the definition for Patch Panel.
Iris: An abridged, but commonly used version of Iris Diaphragm.
Iris Diaphragm: An arrangement of thin, movable, heat-resistant metal plates, i.e., leaves, that form an adjustable circular opening. They are usually placed within an ellipsoidal spotlight or follow spot in order to adjust the diameter of the beam, or in some cases, to mechanically dim the beam.
Iris Slot: A narrow opening in some luminaires for the purpose of inserting a drop-in iris.
K
Kelvin (K): In the metric system, a graduated scale used to measure temperature with 0° (-273°C) being the total absence of heat (absolute zero). Each degree is the same magnitude as a degree in the centigrade scale.
Key Light: the principal source of light which establishes the character of the actor together with the atmosphere and mood of the scene.
Kill: To disconnect electrical current to one, some, or all luminaires, motors, or other electrical equipment.
Kilo (k): A numerical prefix denoting 1000.
Kilovolt (kV): 1000 volts.
Kilovolt-Ampere (kVA): 1000 volt-amperes.
Kilowatt (kW): 1000 watts.
L
Lamp: 1) Any light source in a self contained package, comprising an envelope, filament or electrodes, base, contacts, gas, and any support structures. The source can be of the incandescent, fluorescent, or arc type. 2) Quite often this term is used interchangeably with Luminaire, especially in the theater industry. 3) To install a lamp in a luminaire.
Lamp Bar: A pipe, usually aluminum, that has a plurality of luminaires attached at even intervals. The power cords for the luminaires enter the pipe at even intervals. The power cords for the luminaires enter the pipe via a strain relief, and are electrically connected to wires within the pipe. The internal wires usually terminate into a multiconnector.
Lamp Dip: A colored transparent or translucent lacquer used on low-wattage incandescent lamps in those instances when it is not practical or possible to use standard color media.
Lampholder: The electrical device that supports a lamp in a luminaire, and generally contains the contacts that make the electrical connection to the contacts of the lamp base.
Lantern: A term that is often used interchangeably with Luminaire, and is preferred over Luminaire in Europe.
Leads: The electric cable(s) or sleeved, insulated wires, attached to a luminaire or piece of power distribution equipment via a strain relief, that terminate in a connector for the purpose of providing an electrical connection to the electrical supply or to another luminaire.
Leaf: 1) A single thin, heat-resistant metal plate from an iris or some mechanical dimmers. 2) See definition #1 for Door.
Leko: A commonly used term for an ellipsoidal spotlight. Named after its inventors Levy and Kook, the names Leko and Lekolight are trademarked by Strand Lighting Co.
Lekolight: See the definition for Leko.
Lens: A transparent material, usually glass, shaped to bend light rays as they pass through it. Colored lenses can also be used as color media.
Lens Barrel: 1) The movable, inner tube of a focusing lens system in an ellipsoidal spotlight. 2) The complete tubular front section of an ellipsoidal spotlight that contains the lenses.
Lens Holder: 1) Any apparatus used to retain a lens. 2) See definitions #1 and #2 for Lens Barrel.
Lens Size: 1) A term used in the theater industry to describe plano-convex or bi-convex lenses in terms of diameter and focal length (in inches), e.g., 6×9, 4.5×12. 2) Generally, the diameter of a lens.
Level: 1) An abridged version of Light Level. 2) The position of a slider on a control console.
Lift: A height adjustable stand or tower, sometimes motorized or operated with a crank mechanism or by gas or liquid pressure.
Light: 1) Illumination, i.e., the aspect of radiant energy of which a human observer is aware through the visual sense. Its electromagnetic radiation has a wavelength longer than ultraviolet radiation but shorter than infrared radiation, i.e., approximately 380nm (violet) to 750 nm(red). 2) A term that is often used interchangeably with Luminaire.
Light Console: See the definition for Control Console.
Light Distribution: The way in which illumination of any color or quantity is spread over a particular background.
Lighting Crew: A group of individuals trained in lighting skills and techniques, and collectively assembled to work on a stage, film, or video production. The group may include any or all of the following: stagehands, electrics, electricians, roadies, gaffers, grips, operators and lighting
technicians.
Light Ladder: A steel or iron, ladder-like apparatus used to hang a plurality of luminaires.
Light Leak: Unwanted light that escapes a luminaire from a location other than its intended opening.
Light Level: The average illumination on a subject, performing area, or part thereof.
Light Meter: Any apparatus used to measure various quantities of light, i.e., color temperature, footcandles, lux, etc.
Light Plot: The diagrammatic layout of luminaires and related equipment, and their application(s) for a lighting production.
Light Source: Anything that emits light, such as an arc or a filament, or in early stage light, the flame of a burning wick or gas.
Light Spill: A general term used to describe any stray light, including light leak.
Light Tree: A stand with arms attached.
Lighting Design: The complete layout and presentation of the lighting designer.
Lighting Designer: One who plans lighting compositions, lays out light plots, directs the focusing of luminaires, and determines the various intensities, colors, looks, and cues for a lighting production.
Lighting Director: One who is responsible for the execution of the lighting design for a production, and, in some instances, may also be the Lighting Designer.
Lighting Grid: See the definition for Grid.
Lighting Technician: 1) One trained in the lighting skills and techniques necessary for the implementation of the lighting design for a particular production. 2) See definition #2 for Electrician.
Liquid Dimmer: See the definition for Salt Water Dimmer.
Live: Having any voltage potential in reference to neutral or ground.
Load Rating: 1) The maximum electrical load that something, such as wire, fuses, electrical connectors, etc., can safely accommodate. 2) The maximum weight that something can safely accommodate.
Location Fresnel: A fresnel spotlight used primarily in non-standard production settings, i.e., locations other than stages or studios. Because portability is generally a concern, they tend to be smaller in size when compared to studio fresnels of the same wattage.
Long Throw: A term used to describe a luminaire that has an effective intensity at a relatively long distance. This term is very subjective and dependent on the type of luminaire used.
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